Projection modeling is a mathematical way to use data to help predict a range of important COVID-19 outcomes, such as hospitalizations, infections and deaths. Modeling can also help determine how vaccinations or school closures, and the timing of these factors, may impact the disease outcomes. Modeling researchers use datasets, mathematical approaches, and other parameters to predict the spread and dynamic of infectious diseases. Models can to help predict the number of future virus cases and the peaks and curves that are part of the course of the outbreak. Modeling is a great tool to help support decision-making but models are not able to predict the future, and they can fluctuate based on interventions like the use of social distancing and wearing face masks, in the case of COVID-19. It is a helpful resource but should not be the sole source of information for guiding policy or interventions.

The majority of young people infected have had relatively mild cases of COVID-19. However, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (U.S. CDC) recently identified the more severe multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) as a new syndrome associated with the virus that causes COVID-19. This inflammatory syndrome was first identified in April 2020 and is characterized by inflammation in different body parts, including the heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, skin, eyes, or gastrointestinal organs. While MIS-C is rare, it can be deadly. Symptoms in children include fever, abdominal (gut) pain, vomiting, diarrhea, neck pain, rash, bloodshot eyes, or fatigue. This is a newly identified condition that requires more research, but doctors have observed that symptoms can develop within four weeks of exposure to the novel coronavirus. The inflammation can be managed with medicines that can prevent damage to vital organs. MIS-C occurs in young people under 21, according to its case definition, although it is thought to mostly affect children between the ages of 2 to 15 and is not commonly reported in babies. The U.S. CDC recommends immediately contacting a doctor if your child exhibits any of the symptoms of the inflammatory syndrome. We still do not know why some children experience symptoms, while others do not, and it is unclear if children with particular health conditions are more likely to get MIS-C. At this point, the best prevention measures include taking all precautions to avoid contracting the novel coronavirus, including hand washing, social distancing, avoiding public gatherings, and wearing masks.

Disinfectant wipes should never be reused. Reusing wipes will move germs from one surface to another, which is potentially harmful in the current pandemic. In order for any surface to be properly disinfected, the U.S. CDC recommends following the instructions on each product carefully and leaving the disinfectant on the surface for 3-5 minutes. This means the surface needs to be wet for this period of time, and you may need to use more than one disinfectant wipe depending on the size of the surface. However, you should never reuse the same disinfectant wipe.

COVID-19 enters the body through the nose, mouth, and eyes. This happens primarily when someone infected with the virus releases small droplets of liquid that contain part of the virus through actions like coughing, sneezing, speaking, or singing. These small bits of virus range in size, from the wet, teardrop-sized types of droplets you might see when you sneeze, to microscopic ones that are so light and dry, they might remain in the air for hours. When a person is in close contact with these droplets, the virus enters the body through these three areas. Then, the virus lands at the back of the throat, also called the top of the upper respiratory tract, in roughly 80% of people who have mild cases of infection. For other more severe cases, the virus can then move down to the lungs, potentially causing pneumonia, which happens in 15-20% of cases, although most recover. When COVID-19 spreads to the lungs, it does not mean that they will be "destroyed." It means that there is an infection involving fluid within tiny branches of air tubes or sacs in the lungs called 'alveoli.' These air sacs may fill up with so much liquid or pus that they become swollen, and their walls can thicken, so it is hard for oxygen to be processed and delivered through the lungs, making it harder to breathe. Every virus has a different way of infecting humans, though many viruses gain entry into the body through the nose, mouth, and eyes and often cause upper respiratory infections like COVID-19.

Though the potential for airborne transmission likely wouldn't change testing methods outside of a push for more extensive testing in general, it might influence policy regarding mandating mask wearing, air purification and ventilation systems, and other methods of prevention related to airborne viral spread. SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) is not airborne in the traditional sense. COVID-19 spreads primarily through relatively large respiratory droplets that fall to the ground and into faces and bodies of others. These larger droplets, 'respiratory droplets,’ are wet from saliva and mucus and fall quickly to the ground. Scientists think this type of infectious droplet is how the majority of COVID-19 infections spread.  On the other hand, examples of airborne diseases are tuberculosis and measles, and the way these diseases spread is primarily through the air in smaller particles called 'microdroplets' or 'droplet nuclei.' Smaller droplets can stay in the air for longer periods of time because they are so small and light. Exhalation, talking, coughing, and singing can cause these small droplets to linger in the air for hours after a person leaves a room. SARS-CoV-2 viral particles may be part of these tiny droplets, and can travel beyond 6 feet (2m) in certain situations, but the disease is still not understood to be transmitted primarily through lingering infectious particles in the air.  The aerosol or airborne transmission of COVID-19 occurs more indoors in close contact. This might mean that people who don't fall into the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-defined category of "exposed" to the virus (within 6 feet or 2m of an infected person for more than 15 minutes), but were in the same room as an infected person for an extended period of time, may now be considered ‘exposed’ and require testing. There is currently some controversy around this topic, as 239 scientists recently sent a letter to the World Health Organization (WHO) urging them to recognize the potential of people catching the virus from droplet nuclei via airborne transmission. These scientists believe that the evidence supporting the concept of airborne transmission mean current procedures like social distancing and vigorous hand-washing do not provide enough protection from virus-carrying microdroplets that can stay suspended in the air for hours. Thus, the potential for people inhaling these droplet nuclei into their noses and mouths means additional prevention steps are needed. The WHO previously maintained that the novel coronavirus is mainly spread by respiratory droplet transmission, but has since acknowledged the emerging evidence for airborne transmission in "crowded, closed, poorly ventilated settings," while cautioning that the evidence is preliminary and should be assessed further.

People who have been infected with COVID-19 but don't have symptoms are considered "asymptomatic." People infected with COVID-19 whose symptoms have not yet developed are called "pre-symptomatic." Even as people who are asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic don't display symptoms, they are still infected with the virus, and have the potential to shed the virus. This means that people without symptoms can still spread the virus to others, even if they don't feel sick.

Multiple studies are exploring the link between BCG vaccination policies in various countries, and the relatively lower number of COVID-19 cases and deaths in those countries. Recent studies published do not support the idea that BCG vaccination in childhood is a cause of protection against COVID-19 in adulthood. The World Health Organization (WHO) has published a note on this topic that stated that in the absence of evidence, WHO does not recommend BCG vaccination for the prevention of COVID-19. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) noted that after they accounted for differences in variables like income, age distribution, and access to health services, countries with higher BCG vaccination rates had lower peak mortality rates from COVID-19. However, though there is an association between BCG vaccination and reduced severity of COVID-19 observed in this epidemiological study, it does not mean that there is enough evidence to consider BCG vaccination a cause of protection from severe COVID-19. More studies are underway. _This entry was updated with new information on July 11, 2020_

Dexamethasone is a low-cost, anti-inflammatory medication that is part of the corticosteroid family. Corticosteroids function similarly to the cortisol produced in the body's adrenal glands yet they are synthetically made. Corticosteroids are commonly prescribed to suppress the immune system and reduce swelling and itching common to allergic reactions. Dexamethasone has been widely used since the 1960s, but it has recently been part of several studies exploring potential therapies for COVID-19. In the RECOVERY (Randomised Evaluation of Covid-19 Therapy) Trial at Oxford University (UK), the largest COVID-19 drug trial to date, researchers studied the impact of dexamethasone by comparing the roughly 2,000 patients who received the medication with the 4,000 patients who did not receive the medication. They found that the mortality risk was lowered for patients with severe cases of COVID-19 who were on ventilators or receiving oxygen. For patients with mild cases of COVID-19, beneficial effects were not observed. Dexamethasone has not been approved as an official treatment for COVID-19 outside the United Kingdom thus far, and the World Health Organization (WHO) has urged caution since these results are preliminary, have yet to be evaluated through the peer-review process, and represent findings from only one trial. Despite this, the medication is currently being used in several countries as a part of various treatment strategies for COVID-19. The WHO has also recently added dexamethasone and other steroids into its treatment guidelines for COVID-19. In two other recent studies using corticosteroidal medications (including dexamethasone) as potential treatments for COVID-19, one found a reduction in the number of days patients required ventilator support, and the other found that the corticosteroid medications were associated with an increased duration of illness (among other adverse impacts). Corticosteroids, including dexamethasone, are still an unproven treatment for COVID-19.

Digital thermometers do not damage your brain in any way. Digital thermometers are universally used with children and adults and can come in a wide variety of forms including oral, rectal, temporal artery (forehead), tympanic (ear), and axillary (armpit) versions. These thermometers require a sensor, which typically produces either a voltage, current, or resistance change when there is a change of temperature. These are all widely used and safe. There is no evidence to suggest that neurons or brain cells can be damaged in the process. Older thermometers were glass tubes with mercury inside them. The mercury expanded and contracted based on the temperature of the subject. Now, digital thermometers are far more common and easier to read than traditional mercury-based thermometers, and digital thermometers are considered safer than mercury-based thermometers because mercury is toxic, and there is a possibility for exposure if the glass tube containing the mercury were to break.

Brazil has reported over 1.2 million cases and 54,000 deaths as of June 26, 2020. The recent surge in cases is mainly stemming from the country's densely populated regions, such as Sao Paolo and Rio de Janeiro. Studies estimate that 25% of the Brazilian population in Sao Paolo did not adequately adhere to quarantine guidelines, and the presence of densely packed low-income neighborhoods known as favelas has exacerbated the spread of the virus. In a new study, researchers conducted over 3,000 rapid tests in six of the city's most densely populated neighborhoods and found that infection rates were far higher than the official estimates: some studies had previously estimated that 9.5% of people in Sao Paolo were infected, but the most recent estimates from the largest favela in Sao Paola indicated almost 25% of people who were tested were positive. Medical experts attribute the surge in cases in major cities to relaxed quarantine and isolation measures. Major cities in the country have lifted lockdown measures, and reopened restaurants, shops and businesses. Another research study found that more than 75% of the confirmed cases are from the relatively densely populated southern and southeastern regions of Brazil, and the exponential growth in COVID-19 cases has stemmed from difficulties in effective social distancing. The study reports that many informal workers are continuing to work and information regarding minimum infection prevention and control measures, including hand washing and social distancing, has not been effectively communicated and followed.

Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases that can spread from animals to humans. "Spillover events" (when a disease jumps from an animal to a human) have been known to cause outbreaks, like ebola virus disease. Since some infectious diseases can live within an animal without causing any illness to it, certain interactions with an infected animal can result in transmission to humans. Roughly 6 out of 10 known infectious diseases in people are zoonotic. Of all the emerging infectious diseases (a disease that has newly appeared in a population or has increased incidence in recent years), 3 out of 4 come from animals. Scientists are increasingly worried about zoonotic diseases as they are growing in frequency. In some cases which animal transferred infection to humans is unknown, like SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. As humans expand in the environment through globalization and infringement on undeveloped natural environments, like forests or jungles, the risk for exposure to zoonotic disease increases. Similarly, factors such as the exotic animal trade, the impacts of climate change, and the expansion of animal markets can cause zoonotic diseases to spread more rapidly and widely.

Having a fever means that your body temperature has temporarily increased and it is a signal that your body may be fighting off an infection. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control define a fever as a measured temperature of at least 100.4°F (38°C), slightly higher than the average human temperature of 98.6°F (37°C). Fevers are one of the immune system's first reactions to a pathogen - such as a virus or bacteria entering the body. Fevers can also be caused by environmental factors like heat stroke or biological responses like alcohol withdrawal. Your body senses these potential threats and forces itself to raise its temperature (by creating a fever, through chemicals in your blood called 'pyrogens') to make it difficult for the pathogen to use your body as a host and reproduce viruses or bacteria. Normal body temperatures change every day and usually vary between 97.6°F (36.4°C) and 99.6 °F (37.5°C) with lower body temperatures generally occurring in the morning and higher temperatures occurring at night. For most adults, short-term fevers shouldn't be alarming unless it reaches 103°F (39.4°C) or higher. For infants younger than 3 months, a rectal temperature of 100.4°F (38°C) or higher signals a fever and in that case a doctor should be contacted. For infants between 3 - 24 months, a rectal temperature of 102°F (38.9°C) signals a fever that should also be discussed with a doctor. For other young children, even slight fevers can signal infections, so a doctor should be consulted if a fever appears.

Pool testing, distinct from individual testing, tests a pool (or group) of people at the same time and is a form of testing that has been used for diseases like HIV/AIDS before the current COVID-19 pandemic. Normally, when a COVID-19 test is done using a nasal swab on a patient, that sample is then tested individually to determine if the virus is present, and this can take anywhere from 15 minutes to several days, depending on the abilities of the lab running the test. With pool testing, anywhere from roughly 3 - 50 samples are combined and all of the swabs are tested at once. If the test result from that pool test is negative, then all patients in that pool do not have the virus. If the result is positive, then each swab must then be tested one-by-one. Pool testing, also called "batch testing," is currently being used in order to test many more people for COVID-19 than individual tests alone. This is because instead of testing patients and then analyzing their samples individually to determine whether or not one patient has been infected with COVID-19, pool testing combines many samples and tests them at the same time. Pool testing has gained popularity in recent months due to surging numbers of COVID-19 infections around the world. This method gives laboratories the ability to save time, test greater numbers of people, and use their resources most efficiently. These tests are most useful in places with large populations but a lower number of COVID-19 cases within that population, including group settings like schools or workplaces. In places with with a high rate of infections, this testing strategy would not be as beneficial since most patients would be tested individually either way. Another potential hurdle is that pool testing might lead to more false-negative tests. This is because if a patient does have the virus and it is present in their individual test sample, that sample will be diluted when it is combined with the rest of the samples from the larger group, possibly to the point where the viral load is undetectable.

Substantial research needs to be completed by scientists before any potential vaccine undergoes phased testing. Once it gets to that stage, there are three research phases of trials that take place before the vaccine can be deployed for use. During the first stage (Phase I), the new vaccine is provided to small groups of people—the first time the vaccine is tested in humans. The second stage (Phase II) involves testing the vaccine on people who have similar characteristics (such as age and physical health) to the target population, or the group for which the vaccine is intended. The goal of this stage is to identify the most effective dosages and schedule for Phase III trials. The final stage (Phase III) provides the vaccine to thousands of people from the target population to see how safe and effective it is. Once the vaccine clears this last stage, the manufacturer can apply for a license from regulatory authorities (like the FDA) to market for human use. Sometimes medications that have already been approved by the U.S. Food and Drugs Administration in clinical trials will enter into a Phase IV trial. This phase focuses on potential side effects from the vaccine or medication that were not seen in the first three phases. This phase also helps researchers understand how well a vaccine works over a longer time frame and how safe it is, often with thousands of people over several years. Phase IV is also called a 'post-marketing surveillance' trial.

There is no evidence to support the idea that the virus has lost its potency. This question likely stems from comments made by an Italian doctor claiming that COVID-19 is losing its potency by mutating into a less harmful version of itself. However, this has been refuted by the World Health Organization and other respected health and medical bodies. Viral mutations are a common aspect of a virus' lifespan and do not necessarily mean that they will become more deadly, contagious, or inherently different. Mutations that might change how the virus is transmitted, or how it infects people, does not mean that the mutated virus will spread more or be more harmful. Nor does it mean it will spread less or be less harmful. So far, researchers have stated that while the virus is mutating (like all viruses do) these changes do not translate to significant adjustments in transmission or harm to patients.

Yes, but mostly to other animals of the same species. Currently, there is no evidence that animals are a major cause of spreading COVID-19 and the risk of animals passing COVID-19 to humans is low. According to a recently published study in the New England Journal of Medicine, transmission of the virus has been reported between cats, none of which had symptoms. The study found that three domestic cats infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 were able to transmit the virus to three other cats with no previous infection. None of the cats in the experiment showed any symptoms during the course of infection, but researchers found the continued spreading the virus from their noses for about six days. However, the research is rapidly evolving. This is just the first study to document asymptomatic transmission of COVID-19 in cats and as of now, there is no evidence of transmission of COVID-19 from cats to humans. Cats aren't the only animals that have been shown to spread the virus with no symptoms. Based on recent research conducted by the Dutch government, it is believed that minks infected with COVID-19 spread the virus to two human employees at regional farms. The minks were having symptoms of a respiratory illness, while another study about COVID-19 in animals has shown that mink can be infected with the virus without having any symptoms. Dogs, tigers, lions, and ferrets have also tested positive for COVID-19, but these animals all showed symptoms after testing positive for the virus and likely acquired the virus from humans.

Checking people for fever before they interact with others has been proposed as a means to help reduce transmission of disease. Some countries such as China and South Korea have widespread checks of body temperature to help identify individuals with fevers in offices, restaurants, airports, or other popularly-frequented locations. As a standalone measure, checking for fever is insufficient to prevent disease transmission because of how asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic people can get others sick. Diagnostic testing for COVID-19 - not temperature checks - is a much more accurate, effective means of determining whether or not employees might be infected with the virus. Additionally, temperature testing may be difficult to implement in some locations due to limited resources, privacy concerns, and other reasons. Some experts have cited concerns about workplace surveillance and privacy while using infrared temperature checks. There are also questions about the effectiveness and accuracy of these workplace thermometers, especially considering how many pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic patients might not have any symptoms during the duration of their illness. Lastly, fevers might be indicative of other factors or illnesses unrelated to COVID-19; for example, elevated body temperature is commonly observed in people who are physically exerting energy or under great stress.

Data from around the world has demonstrated the fact that men are impacted more greatly than women by COVID-19. For example, men are more likely to be hospitalized with severe symptoms of the virus and have higher mortality rates than women; and this finding is consistent across age groups and geographies. Researchers have been trying to understand the causes of this and are developing hypotheses to explain the differences between the immune systems' response to COVID-19 in men and women. At this stage, they are exploring these disparities using biological, social, and behavioral lenses. Based on previous studies with similar viruses, data has illustrated that sex differences in immunity are caused by both genetic as well as hormonal differences between women and men. For example, in females, hormones such as estrogen and progesterone may be protective against the virus, yet it is possible testosterone does the opposite for men. In terms of underlying illnesses, the data also illustrates that men are more likely to suffer from hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes than women. Since the beginning of the pandemic, we have learned that these types of underlying conditions have been associated with a higher risk of complications from COVID-19. Behavioral factors may also explain this difference. For instance, females may be more likely to be frontline workers than men, which could create more risks for exposure. In terms of lifestyle, men tend to be more likely to be smokers, which is a risk factor for COVID-19 since it is a respiratory illness. From past studies, we also know that men are less likely to seek out medical care when there's a problem in comparison to women, which means they may interact with the health system at a later stage in the disease when symptoms are more severe. Similarly, in the case of COVID-19, men are less likely to engage in behaviors like mask-wearing and hand-washing, which may increase their risk of contracting the disease. Source: Dr. Sabra Klein (Johns Hopkins University)

COVID-19 and malaria are two different diseases with different ways of being spread and caught. Malaria is spread by mosquitoes, and humans become infected by mosquito bites. COVID-19 is spread by respiratory droplets that we inhale through our nose or our mouth. COVID-19 and malaria have been incorrectly linked for several reasons. Firstly, around the world, hydroxychloroquine, a drug used to treat malaria, received extensive news coverage because there were claims that the drug was effective against COVID-19. A few clinical trials and studies investigated hydroxychloroquine and found no evidence that the drug was effective against COVID-19. In some unfortunate cases, adverse events occurred in people taking this medication. Secondly, malaria and COVID-19 share some symptoms, although the list of COVID-19 symptoms currently grows and changes every day. Malaria symptoms usually appear 10-15 days after the infective mosquito bite and the first symptoms a patient feels are fever, headache, and chills. On the other hand, people infected with COVID-19 usually develop symptoms within 5 days and, in some cases, infected people never develop symptoms at all. Finally, there is a difference between fevers caused by malaria and those caused by COVID-19. Often malarial fevers are cyclical, reoccurring at predictable times based on which strain of malaria was contracted. In comparison, fevers caused by COVID-19 do not appear to occur in cycles. The most common COVID-19 symptoms are: fever, dry cough and tiredness. Less common symptoms include: aches and pains, sore throat, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, headache, loss of taste or smell, a rash on skin, or discoloration of fingers or toes.

There is a whole branch of medical research and pharmaceutical companies dedicated to drug repurposing. In practice, it has led to some therapeutic breakthroughs. For example, aspirin which is historically known for treatment of pain, fever or inflammation, has then be found to be effective against some cardiovascular diseases and is now being studied for potential anti-tumor growth in some cancers. Developing new treatments against new diseases often takes several years, if not decades. With the COVID-19 pandemic death toll increasing by the day, scientists are racing to find drugs that could prevent, treat or simply decrease the severity of COVID-19. Scientists have therefore turned their attention to studying drugs that have been studied for other viruses like the MERS coronavirus, HIV (the virus that causes AIDS), hepatitis C, ebola, influenza, etc. to see whether these drugs would also be effective against this new threat, COVID-19. Since these studies build on existing knowledge, the drug development timeline is substantially shortened, as is the required financial investment. Beyond the time-intensive process of developing new drugs, the advantages of repurposing drugs are numerous. First, existing drugs already have an existing safety track record, and have obtained regulatory approval or are in the later stages of clinical trials. Moreover, they have already been produced and may already be on the market, so plans to increase manufacturing can rapidly occur since the infrastructure already exists and does not need to be re-created. Because of this, scientists can focus on studying whether these drugs are effective against COVID-19, and if so, they can be brought to clinical use at the bedside of patients rapidly. Drug repurposing is very common in medical research as science rarely happens in a vacuum, but rather builds on previous iterations and experience.

"Combination treatments" are the use of two or more drugs to treat a single disease. Currently, there are no combination treatments (also known as dual treatments) that are officially approved for use to treat COVID-19. However, Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, announced on June 23, 2020 while testifying before a House committee on the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic that Remdesivir is being used in combination with anti-inflammatory drug baricitinib. An NIH clinical trial has been underway since May to test the efficacy of the combined treatment, with results not yet released. Only three standalone drugs have officially received emergency use authorization (EUA) from the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) in the US; these include the anti-viral remdesivir (which the WHO has issued a warning for but which still has an EUA in the US), anti-malaria drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine (which the FDA later issued a warning for), and a drug used to sedate patients that are on a ventilator. (These EUAs do not constitute a formal approval of the drug, but rather a possibility given to American doctors to use chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of COVID-19 if the doctor has no other options and after discussing with the patients the risks involved.) In terms of approval of combination treatments, on November 19, 2020, the FDA issued an EUA for the drug baricitinib, in combination with remdesivir, for the treatment of suspected or laboratory confirmed COVID-19 in hospitalized adults and pediatric patients two years of age or older requiring supplemental oxygen, invasive mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). One example of a combination therapy being tested is the dual use of drugs lopinavir and ritonavir, which are in use to treat (not cure) HIV. The combination of these two drugs is known under the brand name Kaletra. Studies are still relatively inconclusive, but most have shown Kaletra to be ineffective for improving COVID-19 outcomes. One study, however, found that when taken with two other drugs — ribavirin and interferon beta-1b — the virus took less time to clear from the patient's body. There are a number of limitations from this trial that warrant further testing. Other studies testing combination therapy have focused on pairs with remdesivir. One study, which led to the combination treatment approved through an EUA by the FDA mentioned above, tested the impacts of remdesivir and anti-inflammatory drug known as baricitinib on time to recovery in hospitalized patients and found a significant reduction. Another tested the combination of remdesivir with the drug leronlimab, an antiviral that has also has shown to have some anti-inflammatory benefits. Studies are also exploring more holistic and less pharmacological approaches as complementary COVID-19 treatment — that is, a potential additional treatment used in combination with other COVID-19 treatments. For instance, some researchers are exploring Traditional Chinese Medicine as a complementary therapy to combat COVID‐19 in conjunction with other therapies being used such as antiviral medications and antibiotics. Virgin coconut oil (VCO) is also being studied in the Philippines and other countries as a potential supplementary treatment for COVID-19 such as antiviral medications and antibiotics. These studies assessing combination treatments will get us closer to understanding if certain combination therapies might be effective for treating COVID-19.

No, drinking alcohol does not prevent or cure COVID-19. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are recommended to disinfect hands and surfaces, but drinking or ingesting alcohol is in no way recommended. In fact, alcohol consumption could worsen COVID-19 symptoms and could weaken your body's ability to fight the virus, if you have lowered immunity. Excessive consumption of alcohol is a risk factor for many diseases, and alcohol should only be consumed in moderation, if at all. The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that drinking alcohol will not protect against infection or illness from COVID-19. In fact, alcohol consumption can reduce the immune system's ability to fight infection and increase the chance of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), one of the most severe symptoms of COVID-19. Additionally, alcohol consumption has other negative health consequences (ex. motor and cognitive impairments, mental health impacts, violence, pregnancy impacts, carcinogenic exposure, associations with several other diseases). In response to rising rates of alcohol consumption and alcohol being one of the most widely abused substances in the world, the WHO has advised that "people should minimize their alcohol consumption at any time, and particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic."

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, feces of some patients who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 have been shown to carry the virus. This has caused many to question the safest way to use the toilet so as to prevent any COVID-19 infection from potentially spreading when the toilet is flushed. The reason many people are concerned about this topic is that it has been discovered that the virus leaves the human body through our waste, which is why it has been found in the feces of infected individuals. When we flush waste down the toilet, traces of the virus may linger in the air long enough to be inhaled. Studies have shown that during a toilet flush, particles can be transported more than 3 feet (1m) upward and can float in the air for more than a minute. It is unknown if the particles that linger in the air are infectious, and how many virus particles are needed to cause an infection. Since there are many unknowns, by precaution, public health experts recommend closing the lid before flushing and wearing masks inside public restrooms.

As of now, there is no consensus about whether or not tears can accurately detect the virus in an infected person, but early study results have shown a lower amount of the virus in tears than in other bodily fluids. Some researchers believe parts of the virus might be able to spread from a person's nasal cavity into their eyes, and eventually into tears in the inner corner of the eyes. Whether or not this type of testing will work is still uncertain as scientists have been testing many bodily fluids like semen, saliva, urine, and tears to determine whether or not the virus can be detected in them and if it can, how much. Humans produce tears in the back of their eye sockets, which is close to the nasal cavity where most COVID-19 tests are being done now. The nasal cavity is located at the back of the nose and is where the COVID-19 virus starts reproducing in people exposed to the virus. Nasal swab tests are designed to collect samples from the nasal cavity that have some genetic material of the virus (DNA and RNA). Tear tests for COVID-19 would try to focus on this similar area of the head as there is a small, thin layer of tissue called the 'conjuctiva' that acts as a bridge between the nasal cavity and the eye socket.

COVID-19 infections can have an impact on blood and circulation through an increased risk of blood clotting. Blood clots are a clump of blood that has formed into a semi-solid or even gel-like state. Recent studies have found a concerning trend in blood clotting of COVID-19 patients. Studies from the Netherlands and France found that 20-30% of critically ill COVID-19 patients had blood clots, which can be dangerous. Many of these circulatory issues and the frequency of clots can lead to rashes, swelling of the legs, challenges in vascular access for medications, and even death. Severe clotting and circulatory issues, like COVID-19 associated blood clots, tend to occur more in severely ill patients rather than those with mild symptoms.

While there are historical uses for these herbal treatments, peer-reviewed studies to support the use of rhodiola, forsythia, or other tradtional Chinese medicines (TCM) for COVID-19 are limited. However, the limited evidence that does exist suggests that TCM used as a supplement with other treatments, such as antiviral medications and antibiotics is promising. One systematic review found that TCM could potentially help eliminate pathogens in the early stage of the virus; control inflammation and strengthens body resistance to the virus in the intermediary stage; and relieve depletion during the late stage of COVID‐19. However, more research is needed to confirm these results. Rhodiola is often used for stress, but has not been proven effective in treating COVID-19. Following the announcement from a Chinese official regarding approval of three herbal supplements for treatment, there was widespread concern regarding the lack of rigorous studies to support their use. More empirical research is needed to understand the role of TCM as a supplementary treatment for COVID-19. While there have now been a number of approvals of treatments for emergency use for COVID-19 approved in the U.S. and elsewhere, it is crucial to note that no COVID-19 treatment has been formally recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), and more research is needed on larger samples and long-term to understand the impacts of TCM and other potential COVID-19 treatments.

Llamas are being used in research to produce antibodies that _may_ help develop therapeutics to treat and prevent COVID-19 in humans. Like humans, llamas naturally produce antibodies. Antibodies are special proteins that are made from plasma cells (a type of white blood cell), and they help the body to fight "antigens" including viruses, bacteria, and other threats that can make people sick. Llamas are able to produce a special type of antibody called a 'nanobody.' Nanobodies are about a quarter of the size of the antibodies that humans produce and, because they are so small, nanobodies are more stable, can live for a long time, and are able reach tiny, hard-to-reach areas of the body to help treat infected cells. Using a known process, scientists are looking to create a treatment for COVID-19 using llama nanobodies. Though animal studies have only just begun and researchers are not yet ready for human studies, there is hope that COVID-19 antibody treatments made possible by llamas could become preventive in the future.

Linking a decrease in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) to a decrease in the immunization rate of infants in the U.S. would be factually misleading. Rates of SIDS and immunization have to be understood to be independent of one another until proven otherwise. So far, no studies have linked the two rates. There is also no published data on SIDS during the pandemic so far. One white paper makes claims that SIDS has decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic based on “anecdotal evidence”, i.e. hearsay, which is not considered to be scientific evidence. As a result, scientists do not know what effect COVID-19 has had on SIDS, if any at all. As for immunization, on May 18th 2020, the US CDC reported that vaccination rates declined across children age groups, except for newborns receiving the hepatitis B vaccine at the hospital around the time of birth. 

Meat processing plants have become major hotspots for coronavirus outbreaks because employees work in close proximity to one another, which makes social distancing very difficult. Across the U.S., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report that 4,913 COVID-19 cases and 20 deaths have been reported among approximately 130,000 workers at 115 meat processing facilities in 19 states. Many meat processing plants have failed to provide basic protections like face masks, plexiglass barriers between workers, or paid sick leave to frontline employees. The Tyson Fresh Meats Plant in Washington State, the largest meat-packing plant in the state, was temporarily closed in April after more than a 100 employees tested positive for COVID-19. The plant has since resumed operations after testing all employees, but unions and health officials alike have advocated for greater health protections for workers, including adequate social distancing measures, even if it slows operations.

We're still learning more about the role of genetics in COVID-19 infection, both in terms of susceptibility, but also severity of illness. There have been some studies that have looked at proteins, called "toll-like receptors" or "TLRs" that help an immune system detect a virus and alert the immune system to begin defending the body from infection. Those studies have looked at the role of TLRs in natural immunity to the virus, and how our genes controlling a protein involved in TLR response, plays into susceptibility. Other studies have assessed blood types and that those with Type A appear to have a higher risk of contracting the virus, whereas Type O might be protective. ACE receptors - also known as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors - might be the way the virus gets into the cell and may play a large role in the virus's ability to infect cells. Because of this, there has been increased research into genetic variants in these receptors. It is likely that some genetics play a role in COVID-19 infection and clinical manifestations, but it will take much more research to understand these relationships.

There has not been widespread, conclusive, or objective data to support the use of camphora 1m and arsenic album 30 as immunity boosters. The WHO and U.S. CDC point to supportive care as some therapeutic options are evaluated and studied, but none of these include homeopathic medications. At this time, it is not recommended as an effective treatment or prophylaxis for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.

There is currently not enough evidence to know whether or not favipiravir, also known as Avigan, can effectively treat COVID-19; however, the preliminary evidence is promising. Favipiravir is a drug that is used as an influenza medication in Japan and China, and is currently in studies to treat other viral infections, including COVID-19, in many other countries. Early studies involving favipiravir has showed promising results in reducing the duration of symptoms of COVID-19 and aiding in the recovery of patients. However, there were shortcomings to these early studies, such as only having a small number of patients involved and the presence of age differences between study groups. Additionally, not all studies randomly assigned to their groups (called randomization) and not all studies "blinded" their study subjects and their doctors (meaning they both knew which treatments they received and didn't receive). This helps explain why there is a lack of consensus as to whether or not favipiravir is an effect treatment for COVID-19 at this time. Main advantages of favipiravir are that it is administered orally and that it can be given in patients who are symptomatic but not ill enough to be hospitalized. As of November 2020, the International Journal of Infectious Diseases published a set of case studies of COVID-19 treated with favipiravir among patients in critical or severe condition, and found that all patients showed a clinical and chest imaging improvement, and all patients recovered without subsequent hypoxemia. Once again, while these results are promising, they are case studies and not formal research studies and therefore have signifiant limitations.

SARS-CoV-2 is the virus that causes COVID-19. It leaves the human body through our waste, so flushing the toilet with that waste means traces of the virus can be found in sewage water. This is why COVID-19 has been recently detected in sewage water in regions that have tested for it. By collecting water from sewers, scientists in the U.S. and Europe are now testing sewage for the virus, using it as a collective sample to measure infection levels among thousands of people. Recent studies have shown that sewage water can be used as an early diagnostic tool for determining where potential COVID-19 cases might be occurring in a city. A recent study showed that measuring virus levels in municipal sewage helped researchers predict where forthcoming COVID-19 cases would be coming from a week before people began testing positive for the virus in that area. They did this by comparing the amount of virus found in the sewage water with the amount of confirmed cases in an area's hospitals. We have observed that estimating the true number of COVID-19 cases is extremely challenging; these estimates often lead to underestimating the true scope of the pandemic in a community because many people are never tested for the virus even if they are ill. Moreover, asymptomatic patients or those with mild symptoms may never seek out testing and therefore won't be counted; but they can still transmit the virus. In this context, measuring overall virus levels in sewage over time could indicate the scope of the pandemic; indicate whether an outbreak is growing or shrinking; and can act as a surveillance system that would allow to detect new waves of an outbreak before patients develop symptoms and go to hospitals. (Source: [Biobot Analytics](https://www.biobot.io/))

India enacted one of the toughest nationwide lockdown policies in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and shut down all travel and movement with barely four hours notice on March 24, 2020. The lockdown disproportionately impacted the informal sector of India (the part of any economy that is not regulated by the government), and left thousands of migrant laborers and daily wage earners stranded. With buses and trains shuttered, migrant laborers had to walk hundreds of kilometers back to their villages, and many died along the way. India's COVID-19 response has been criticized for inadequately accounting for the needs of the most marginalized and vulnerable residents who lacked resources to cope with the abrupt lockdown. Now that the lockdown has ended, the Supreme Court of India has ordered states to identify stranded migrant laborers and facilitate their return to their hometowns. Several states, including West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, and Jharkhand, have reported spikes in infections as more than 10 million migrant workers return to their homes following the easing of lockdown measures. The actual impact of migration on COVID-19 cases is difficult to ascertain, since testing has also improved, but the sudden influx of migrant laborers has made it even more difficult for the state healthcare institutions to treat and care for COVID-19 cases.

It's too early to know. Successful discovery and safe delivery of a vaccine are very challenging. In the pandemic context we are in, many scientists are turning to existing drugs and vaccines to try and see if they can repurpose them to tackle COVID-19, especially since their safety profiles, side effects, and effectiveness are already known. Similarly, the safety track record of the oral polio vaccine is also known, and scientists are now studying its efficacy against COVID-19. The hypothesis these scientists have suggested is that the oral polio vaccine – a weakened version of the live polio virus – is assumed to trigger a general immune response in the body - production of antibodies against a foreign organism to be protected in the future if infected again with the same organism. When the body's immune system engages this response to fight off the unknown virus, scientists believe the body will develop antibodies specific to the novel coronavirus, the virus that causes COVID-19. However these are early studies occurring in animal models only at this stage and with no results yet. Moreover, there is no consensus yet among scientists as to whether choosing the oral polio vaccine as a candidate was a good idea in the first place. Some note that there are risks in introducing the oral polio vaccine in some populations which is why in most of the world, doctors have phased out the oral formulation in favor of the inactivated polio vaccine, which is more widely used today.

Tear gas and other chemical irritants can cause people to cough, sneeze, and take off their face masks, which can increase the spread of COVID-19. This is the case both for people who have symptoms of the virus and those who might not have any symptoms and don't know they are sick. The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads primarily through droplets that are emitted when people exhale, cough, or spit. Tear gas can cause people to cough or scream loudly, which could carry the virus particles much farther than 6 feet (2m) and infect others around them. In addition to inducing coughing, tear gas has also been linked to increased susceptibility to infection in the respiratory tract as well as increased pain and inflammation. A 2014 study found that exposure to tear gas contributed to a significantly higher risk of acute respiratory illnesses (sudden and serious respiratory illnesses). More than 1200 infectious disease and public health professionals have signed a petition opposing the use of tear gas and other respiratory irritants during this pandemic.

Public health experts indicate that lockdown measures in India ended too quickly, just as cases started spiking. The initial lockdown was in effect for 21 days from March 24, 2020, and was extended to May 31, 2020. Following May 31, 2020, the country opened up in phases, and only a few areas continued to place restrictions on movement. Crowded means of transportation, densely packed neighborhoods, and inadequate social distancing have contributed to a steep rise in infections, made worse by a premature end to the lockdown. The end of the lockdown has also sparked a mass exodus of migrant laborers back to their home states, which local health authorities worry has driven the rise in new cases. It's too soon to tell whether the spike in new cases has actually been driven by migrant laborers—increased testing availability has allowed for more cases to be detected, which may also contribute to the increased case count. Experts from the Indian Council of Medical Research noted that India has still not reached the peak of infections, and that cases are likely to continue to rise in the future.

The renewed focus on the COVID-19 pandemic and its heavy toll has worried health experts about other infectious disease programs in low- and middle-income countries, such as the distribution of insecticide-treated bednets in sub-Saharan Africa or routine vaccination programs in India. A new modeling analysis released by the World Health Organization shows that disruptions to bednet distribution campaigns could double the number of malaria deaths in 2020 compared to the amount of deaths in 2018 (in the worst case scenario). Health experts are warning that existing vaccination programs or other vector control programs (such as indoor spraying or insecticide-treated bednet distribution campaigns) should be accelerated to prevent other infectious disease outbreaks, even as resources are focused on the COVID-19 pandemic.

Large gatherings of people in close contact for a prolonged period of time does increase risk for transmission of respiratory viruses. Outdoor protests allow for natural ventilation, and the additional use of masks, eye protection, and social distancing efforts can help reduce risk. While it is unknown if protests will lead to a large increase in the number of cases, it is possible there will be additional cases in the 2 weeks following protests.

Wearing gloves does not directly protect against spread of the virus. COVID-19 is thought to spread primarily through small drops of moisture (respiratory droplets) that are released when a person infected with COVID-19 coughs, talks, or sneezes.

The virus that causes COVID-19 is spread through respiratory secretions like a cough or a sneeze. While it can also be transmitted through contaminated surfaces and objects (e.g. contaminated door handle), there has been no evidence that it can be spread through water in pools, hot tubs, spas, or water play areas. Moreover, the virus has not been detected in drinking water. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the biggest concern for COVID-19 transmission around pools is related to crowded areas where social distancing cannot occur and the importance of hand hygiene and respiratory etiquette due to many high-touch surfaces and objects. In relation to pools, exposure prevention is focused more on respiratory droplets from other people visiting the pool rather than the water itself.

No. Personal protective equipment that cannot be disinfected, like a cloth or surgical mask, should not be shared between people. Over time, these masks become dirty and have wear and tear. Since masks come into contact with our mouth and nose, they easily become contaminated and should not be shared.

Pre-print studies are studies that have been completed but haven't gone through the peer-review process that most scientific journals require for publishing. Pre-prints provide new data and information, which is important in a pandemic. However the details in a pre-print study, such as: how the study was designed and conducted, what sample sizes were included, what assumptions were made, and how calculations were done, have not been scrutinized by the journal's reviewers and editors. The process of scrutinizing a pre-print study is what the peer-review process consist of. Most websites that publish pre-print articles suggest that these articles should not be reported in the news as established information or used to guide clinical practice or health-related behavior. Until the studies are scrutinized by reviewers, they should not be assumed to be factually correct or inform any actions.

The virus that causes COVID-19 can potentially be spread through money. However, it's unlikely to cause the COVID-19 illness in humans. A recent study has shown that the virus that causes COVID-19 can survive on solid surfaces like coins for up to four days and on paper like cash for up to three hours, but the virus was no longer infectious (viable) after that point. There has been no rigorous research to conclude or disprove that COVID-19 can be easily spread through coins and paper money otherwise. Therefore, the risk of catching COVID-19 from the virus sticking to money is very low. However, it is best practice in general to wash your hands and avoid touching your face after touching money. The virus that causes COVID-19 is primarily spread through person-to-person contact, especially if you are in close contact with another person (within about 6 feet or 2 meters). Since we do not yet fully understand all the ways the virus could spread, it would be a good practice to be vigilant with money just as any other potential contaminated surface, and wash your hands with soap after touching it.

There have been no documented cases of sexual transmission. Current evidence suggests that COVID-19 can not spread from person to person through bodily fluids that are not respiratory functions like talking, coughing and sneezing. Some confusion around this could be because traces of the virus that causes COVID-19 were found in the semen samples of 6 out of 38 men who provided samples in a research study. According to the study, four of the six men were still infected, while two were recovering. This does not mean that COVID-19 is sexually transmitted. Traces of the virus have also been found in other bodily fluids and stool samples, but studies have shown negative COVID-19 detection in semen samples in both late-stage COVID-19 patients and recovering COVID-19 patients. However, sexual contact does carry a high risk with regards to COVID-19 transmission between partners through respiratory secretions, not semen.

Antibiotics are not used to treat or cure COVID-19, but they _can_ treat bacterial infections that can happen as a result of complications from the COVID-19 virus. Viruses and bacterial infections cause different types of illnesses, and antibiotics are only effective in treating bacterial infections, not viruses like COVID-19. Antibiotics should not be taken as a way to prevent or treat COVID-19 and they should not be taken unless prescribed by a doctor. Sometimes, antibiotics might be used in patients with COVID-19 but **only** to treat secondary bacterial infections.

There is no herb, combination of herbs, or food that is a safe and effective abortifacient (a drug that induces abortion). Not only are herbs not effective to safely induce abortion, they can also be highly dangerous.

Summary: Red meat can be an important source of protein and other essential nutrients. However, a high intake of red meat and animal fat has been shown to be associated with higher rates of hypertension and other health problems such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.

When eaten in moderation, bread can be part of a healthy, balanced diet. This is especially true of breads that are enriched with extra nutrients (such as folic acid and iron), breads that are whole-grain, and sprouted breads. However, when eaten in excess, bread can cause health problems, including mental impairment. This is especially the case with white and refined breads.